ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to explore the concept of ‘extreme’, within present day society and popular media and consumer culture. The accuracy of the term itself was closely examined. The key defining factors of these sports were studied, such as equipment advancements, environment, i.e. weather conditions and terrain, and physical and mental aptitude of participants, linking to the relevance of the ‘adrenalin factor. The significance of commitment and lifestyles developing and revolving around these sports was observed, leading into an investigation of mass media manipulation of ‘extreme sports’ for commercial purposes.
The central method of investigation involved a qualitative, twenty question interview. This was conducted informally via telephone, e-mail and face to face with interviewee, over a period of 5 months. The sample (n= 30) included professionals involved either directly or indirectly with the sports. These included a diverse range of World Cup skiers, Olympic skiers (Freeride, moguls, aerials and downhill), pro snowboarders, pro windsurfers, pro skateboarders, current X-games participants, sports commentators, T.V. producers, directors and editors, sponsors, and retailers/buyers/marketing professionals etc.
Results were gathered via qualitative statements that were extracted from within the interviews, and closely analysed. They were summarised under significant categories. Popular response suggested key defining elements contributing to whether a sport can be accurately described as extreme or not, such as adrenalin factors, skills related to precision and environmental factors. However, these factors play a role in many sports, which are not considered ‘extreme’. Interviewees suggested that it was the element of high risk of harm that was specific to ‘extreme’. The majority of the interviewees agreed that the term ‘extreme’ was becoming more a blanket term incorporating many ‘alternative’ sports. Therefore the term ‘freesports’ was offered, following the overwhelming opinion, that ‘extreme’ had devalued due to mass media exposure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To the likeminded souls who devoted their time to this study, I would like to express my appreciation of your effort and your words of wisdom. I am deeply indebted to Richard (Raz) Cobbing, for his selfless input in both making contact with professionals and donating his profound knowledge of the field. To Sea Garden, you know I completely appreciated your patience, astute observations, insightful advice and moments of hilarity.
Melody Sky
CONTENTS
Abstract
Acknowledgements
1 Introduction & Review of Literature
1.1 ‘Extreme’ sport defined
1.2 Role of the media in the evolution of extreme sport
1.3 Advances in extreme sports’ technology and equipment
1.4 Environment
1.5 Precision
1.6 Thrills and skills
1.7 Commitment to a lifestyle
1.8 Media advertising’s influence on the ‘extreme lifestyle’ as a commodity
1.9 Media interest in ‘extreme’ sports: past and present
1.10 Costs and benefits of media marketing & sponsorship
1.11 Feeling of difference in ‘extreme’ sports
1.12 Changes in the spirit of ‘extreme’ sport culture
1.13 Corporate recognition and image making
1.14 Media equipment
1.15 Internet
1.16 (a) Aims
........(b) Hypotheses
2 Methodology
2.1 Preliminary questionnaire pilot-study
2.2 Interviews
(a) Sample
(b) Materials and procedure
2.3 Ethnographic observations
2.4 Ethical Considerations
2.5 Limitations
3 Results & Analysis
3.1 Definition of ‘extreme’
3.2 The adrenalin factor
3.3 Lifestyles
3.4 Media influence on lifestyle as commodity
3.5 Sponsorship & competition
3.6 Interviewees’ relationship with the media
3.7 Suggestions for improvements & further research
4 Conclusions
5 References
6 Appendices
I Copy of preliminary questionnaire (pilot study)
II Interview questions
III Results of interviews in tabular form
IV Copy of cover notes sent with Interviews via e-mail
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been a rise to prominence in a plethora of sports popularly dubbed ‘extreme’. The implications of increasing media coverage are multifaceted. Central to an understanding of the influence of commercialism on the sub-cultures of these sports is delineation of the meaning of ‘extreme’ as used by professionals, lay sportsmen and the media.
The conceptual and definitional controversy aside, there seems to be one undeniable commonality shared by all so-called ‘extreme’ sports -namely the intensity of the emotion experienced, as eloquently described by big-wave surfer Dave Kalama:
I have had that feeling where that’s it. That one moment you are riding the wave or jumping off that cliff is all that matters and your whole life is about that one particular moment. Everything is clear, everything just is and that’s all that matters at that particular point…everybody in life wants to feel euphoric, no problems, enlightened, all of these things all at one moment where nothing matters except Being matters (op cit Lyon and Lyon, 1997: 142).
Contrary to media-manipulated images of ‘thrill seekers’ (du lac, op cit Rinehart, 1998: 398) these sports demand that individuals have fine-tuned skills, extensive knowledge both of the terrain and climatic elements, and, perhaps most importantly, acute awareness of their capabilities. It will be argued that only a balanced orchestration of these individual elements permit a favourable outcome from what is essentially a gamble with death. In the words of famous surfer Mark Foo (1985) ‘if you want the ultimate thrill you’ve got to be willing to pay the ultimate price’ (www.swell.com).
This complex interplay of elements is perhaps understood best by illustration as the following hypothetical experiential account attempts to emphasise: You have hiked up a steep, snow-covered mountain face to the point where the race will begin. The start gates are delicately balanced on a razor-like ridge, and as you survey the breathtaking mountainous environment, you immediately become aware of your insignificance as a human being. It is awe-inspiring. The air is thinner and demands that you breathe deeper, pressing on the lungs after the long climb. The sub-zero temperature carries a bitter edge freezing any tear or perspiration on your face. The mountain is covered in snow a mix of smooth powder, hard boulders and solid ice. Every few feet there are exposed jagged rocks like teeth daring you to come close to them. Your heart is pumping hard against your chest. You are familiar with the mountain and know your own capabilities, however there is still a degree of uncertainty. Mother nature is never 100% predictable. You feel a mixture of fear and excitement as you take time to consider all possibilities of the line you are about to descend. All the calculations of weather conditions, safety equipment, personal aptitude mentally and physically, the terrain, snow conditions etc, must be prepared before the long and challenging run. Once you take off, there is no turning back; there is only one-way down. The dynamic thrust of poles and skis initiates the build up of speed. The heart is still pumping hard, and hereafter there is no room for deliberation. You are now a machine. Your skis and poles form the bodywork of this mechanism. You reach speeds of 40mph down a 40-degree couloir. Each muscle and bone adjusts to every slight bump beneath your feet. You see for a great distance in front of you, all the time the brain is making instinctive calculations. Suddenly at speed you reach a 30-metre vertical cliff face. With no hesitation you jump it. It feels like you are in the air for longer than you actually are. You relax your body slightly in order not to snap bones or ligaments on impact, landing the steep drop. The downward pressure of the landing decelerates your speed. You scrape some hidden rocks but there is no time to stop, look and consider any damage. Increasing the speed again you reach a second steep cliff jump. The launch is not as perfect and mid flight you feel your body tilting backwards. You know that if you land in the wrong position on hard snow, your back could be broken. On landing, you swiftly throw yourself onto your side, and try and relax the body. You roll rapidly a few times, not knowing where and when you will stop. Eventually you roll straight up into the standing position again, and keep on skiing. The fall does not disrupt your focus. You finish the race at a pace any average skier would be terrified of. On the finish line you end with a daring double twist in the air off a lip, landing backwards on your skis. The crowd erupts into a rapturous applause.
This account encapsulates a freeride competition run, one of the many ‘extreme’ sports available today. This is typically defined as an extreme sport. Sensory awareness is heightened to extraordinary levels, and fear and elation are two sides of a coin revolving around control. Many people crave this type of experience, although the level they aspire towards can vary greatly between individuals. On the one hand, one might pursue a direct physical/mental experience, or on the other hand, a more interactive experience may be pursued via computer-generated virtual environments. The above account bears close resemblance to elements of popular computerised games such as ‘Cool Boarders’ or ‘Tony Hawkes Skateboarding’ on Play station. One might even adopt a whole lifestyle, and perhaps even combine it with work.
Whichever medium under consideration, contemporary popular culture has a newfound interest in ‘extreme’ sport, but for many it may not be the core intense experience that is actually being sought. Indeed, this study aims to illustrate how western media-driven culture has applied the term ‘extreme’ to sports such as bungee-jumping, an activity which requires little skill and virtually no real risk of harm. Therefore, this suggests that a revision of the term extreme is required. Accordingly, the concept of ‘extreme sports’ will be explored within this study from an ethnographic perspective. In addition, the perspectives of professionals concerning the utility and appropriateness of this term, as currently employed, within the media will be sought.
1.1 ‘Extreme sport’ defined
This study aims to clarify the meaning of ‘extreme’ in its juxtaposition with sport and consider new (possibly more appropriate) definitions for the relevant sports. Already existing examples are ‘alternative sports’ (Gonzalez, 1998: 28), (Rinehart, 1998: 398); ‘lifestyle sports’ (Wheaton, 2000, 255), (Clawson, 2000: 91); ‘whiz sports’ (Midol & Broyer, 1995: 204); ‘outside sports’ (Rinehart, 1998: 398) and ‘post-modern sports’ (Rinehart, 1998: 399) to name but a few. ‘Extreme’ appears to be the dominant term concomitant to many of today’s post-modern or non-traditional sports, currently used by the media. However, the sports grouped under the term ‘extreme’, may not necessarily be accurately described as such according to Collins’ English dictionary definition:
Extreme adj 1 of a high or the highest degree or intensity. 2 exceptionally severe or unusual: people can survive extreme conditions…” and “…in the extreme to the highest or farther degree. (Collins, 1997: 275)
This definition of extreme is suggestive of athletes taking sports to the highest degree of difficulty, intensity, and requiring precise decision-making. Likewise, the conditions the athlete participates in may well also be extreme. The equipment used might be exceptionally technical; and above all, the mental aptitude and physical ability when taken to such a level may be said to be ‘taking it to the extreme’. Tomlinson (1996: 7) suggests that:
Extreme Sports are about individuality, higher and higher levels of achievement, redefining performance boundaries, and the personal satisfaction that comes from trying your best. Extreme Sports deliver a sense of accomplishment, whether you establish a new level of ability or simply challenge yourself while having a good time.
There also exists the problem of where one draws the line along a continuum of risk when allocating terminology such as ‘extreme’ e.g. one might not describe the average surfer surfing 3ft waves as ‘extreme’, but once one enters 30ft waves where life is indeed at stake (if one does not know ones sport inside out) -this is certainly extreme. Clearly, a variety of factors define a sport’s level of extremity i.e. environment, weather conditions and equipment used. Therefore, it seems that one cannot make over-generalisations by describing particular sports as ‘extreme’ per se, as seems to be currently happening in mass media.
1.2 Role of the media in the evolution of extreme sport
Extreme sports have existed now for many, many years, from climbers of the world’s highest mountains, backcountry skiers, to watermen battling powerful seas, yet have not necessarily been at the forefront of the media. However, in the past few years there has been a sudden interest shown by the broadcast media in particular. There are several factors contributing to the recent appeal of ‘extreme’ sports. One phenomenon over the last few decades that has had a causal effect on their popularity may be that as the world and everything around us evolves, so does the ease of our lives and what we chose to do with them, i.e. our leisure time. One significant factor may be the ever-increasing effortlessness and accessibility of travel options. In contemporary society, one can visit another country and culture within hours, subsequently returning with new knowledge to divulge within ones own culture, henceforth producing new sub-cultures. Crosset and Beal (1997: 80) used an example of one such subculture as being ‘globe-trotting Westerners [who] use the beaches and forests of the Third World as their exotic playground while between jobs’. Although this cross section of people perhaps have more disposable income, they don’t necessarily represent the bulk of travellers, however it still highlights the opinion that perhaps nowadays people are more able to ‘take the time off’ specifically to travel. Subsequently the knowledge of new sports may be brought back and shared by these returning voyagers as Young (1983) suggested, through ‘…family and peer group awareness, direct or indirect contact with established members of the subculture and, most significantly, the media’ (op cit Donnelly and Young, 1988: 225).
Indeed, the media has played a large part in this development. There is certainly an immense availability of television in homes all around the globe. One does not even have to leave the confines of ones own home to experience these sports and subcultures. Television provides a window to the world. It presents us with an insight into what sports other cultures may partake in. In contemporary culture the media has become reliant on sport and vice versa. Rowe (1999: 24) had suggested that we have increasingly ‘entered into relations with other economic entities which acted as conduits, carrying sports culture far beyond its places of origin’. The relationship of media, sport and economics is endemic in a progressive global economy, with cultures and pastimes mixing to produce new possibilities for leisure time.
1.3 Advances in extreme sports’ technology and equipment
In unison with the growth of such factors as travel and television comes the evolution of amalgamated ‘modern’ and even ‘pre-modern’ sports, into post-modern sports. For example, surfing could be termed a modern sport. Although, according to Morgan and Finney (1970: 83), it has been in existence for perhaps three or four thousand years (op cit Pearson, 1979: 31), surfing really made its impact in the fifties and sixties. In the seventies and eighties skateboarding became the hype. Today, the juxtaposition of these water and land sports have produced snowboarding, wakeboarding, kite surfing, big wave surfing, mountain or mud boarding and even Vew-Do boarding. They all generally have a similar basic stance, positioning and movement; only the boards are each designed for a specific terrain, which may be particular to an environment or country. These are not traditional sports, and perhaps for ease of creating several different headings, have been categorized by the media under the same label, ‘extreme’.
The popularity of these sports is increasing at an analogous pace to that of advancing technology. Tomlinson suggests:
The Evolution of extreme sports is a story of pushing available technologies and designs in order to improve performance. From high-tech fabrics to composite construction methods to innovations in design… (Tomlinson, 1996: 7)
In a world where technology is evolving at a rapid pace, the way we utilise the technology must likewise progress. It has been noted that in the majority of these ‘extreme’ sports, the athletes use additional objects, i.e. surf board, hydrofoil air board, snowboard, skis, paraglider, kayak, harness, etc. The advancing equipment technology and technicality are motivating the sportsperson to progress also to newer perhaps more ‘extreme’ limits.
1.4 Environment
By formal dictionary definition the term ‘extreme’ implies that the sportsperson is participating under high risk factor conditions; for example the environment, i.e. the terrain and weather. Snow sports such as skiing, snowboarding and telemarking can be considered extreme when undertaken in terrain that is steeper, more challenging to get to and perhaps not reached, or even considered, by your everyday ski holidaymaker. Often the only way to reach these untouched terrains is by helicopter, or by extremely physical and professionally trained climbing. Midol and Broyer (1995: 207) described the mountains as being ‘perceived as living entities, at once dangerous and benevolent’. The sportsperson must be aware of this, and have sought the appropriate knowledge to conquer the exposed and hostile environment. In a description of proficient skiing Midol (1993) described ‘the harmony by which the limits of the body blend with the environment, when skis have stopped vibrating and begin to glide, when it leaves the zone of real time and enters the unreal’ (op cit Midol and Broyer, 1995: 208). It takes a certain degree of training to reach this sensation of being completely tuned into and almost being a part of the equipment and terrain. A surfer or windsurfer must also have proficient enough knowledge of all factors involved in their sport to create a sensation that becomes second nature. A surfer will spend much time watching the direction of a wave, and learning patterns of rip tides, currents and weather patterns. Indeed ‘big wave surfing’ where the surfer is towed into waves travelling 30 mph and reaching 30 feet or more is an extreme and hostile environment and would take a great deal of contemplating. This is probably one of the most extreme of sports in the strictest sense of the word. Lyon & Lyon (1997: 2) studied ‘tow- in surfers’ and appropriately said ‘they are not daredevils, but men who take calculated risks, having a solid understanding of their environment and the equipment’.
1.5 Precision
Precision in all areas of extreme sport must exist for the athlete to survive the task at hand. Any slight error could endanger their lives. A prime example of this is when Tao Berman, well known within his circles as one of the best, most proficient extreme kayaker’s, paddled over Canada’s Upper Johnston Falls in Banff National Park on august 23rd 1999. The waterfall was a huge 98-feet high, and was not even eight feet wide, with rocks jutting out at one side, half way down. If the stunt was not performed with absolute perfection, the consequences could have been somewhat catastrophic. ‘A bad landing would crush his spine and even a good one could crack his ribs’ (Knapp, 1999: 34). However, Tao is a man whom knows his sport inside out, and had been training for a great deal of time, carrying out repeated similar extreme manoeuvres with absolute precision. For Tao it ‘was pure calculation’ (op cit Knapp, 1999: 34). This is certainly taking his sport to the ‘extreme’, as undoubtedly it could be life threatening if calculations were not absolutely precise.
Le Breton describes Csikszentmihalyi’s theory (1975) of ‘flow experience’ and ‘flow state’. Here the athlete is in a state of ‘immersion at the time of high concentration, decisions follow one after another with an internal drive with which nothing can interfere, time loses its importance’ (op cit Le Breton, 2000: 3). The athlete must be completely immersed in the feeling of all contributing factors in his/her sport to survive. In a study on surfers in New Zealand, Edelmann had suggested that the ‘challenge of skill mastery was considered the major appeal of the sport’ (2000: 40). There is a degree of risk involved, and to reduce this risk to the minimal, one must have a high degree of knowledge and precision in the sport.
1.6 Thrills and Skills
These sports have in the past have been described as ‘adrenalin sports,’ for the ‘thrill seeker’ or ‘adrenalin junkie.’ There is a certain element of truth in this. Yet it would be unfair to say that all extreme sports participants are participating solely for the ‘rush’, or that the reason for their pursuit in these sports is exclusively for this feeling of exhilaration. This physically and mentally heightened arousal is part of the whole package. Tomlinson (1996) suggests that extreme athletes ‘…are not lunatics seeking an adrenalin buzz no matter what the consequences.’ He proposed that:
They get their adrenalin rush because their skills allow them to perform safely under conditions that are dangerous or even life threatening. They can successfully do things that could kill those unfamiliar with their particular sports because they have dedicated themselves to performing within their limits, even while they have consistently challenged themselves to redefine what those limits are. (Tomlinson, 1996: 7)
One may hypothesise that it is a feeling of being in control of ones own life (death) that the athlete goes in search of, outside the normalcy of society. Le Breton suggests that:
A deal is made symbolically with Death, with the body as the currency, nature as the site of the event and death respected only remotely, metaphorically solicited rather than approached for real, even though sometimes it arrives on the scene with a reminder that it is the one limit that can never be exceeded (Le Breton, 2000: 6).
To live through this experience, the athlete must be aware of this limit, with accompanied physiological and psychological fine-tuning. Midol and Broyer (1995: 209) suggested that to ‘achieve these peaks in performance, the individual must draw on physiological instincts that kick in when one is suddenly faced with mortal danger’. Kenyon encapsulates the fine line separating thrill and danger as:
…the medium of speed, acceleration, sudden change of direction, or exposure to dangerous situations, with the participant usually remaining in control…he usually approaches vertigo without actually achieving it, the experience becomes the pursuit of vertigo (op cit Pearson, 1979: 72).
However, some athletes have diced with death with a blatantly irresponsible approach, making the adrenalin rush more ‘real’, pushing the boundaries dangerously far: Fiske (1989) suggests, ‘Danger, excitement, and lack of attention to safety are fetishized’ (op cit Wheaton, 2000: 260). Once they have gained this ‘rush’, the pursuit for the physical and mental stimulation can only be reached under the same perhaps more dangerous circumstances. The pursuit may become their addiction. Midol and Broyer (1995: 209) describe this obsessive addictive trait as being ‘compared with the pleasure that is derived from orgasm or drugs’. They describe, ‘experiences of those who face the threshold of death-fighter pilots, astronauts, deep sea divers, mountain climbers-time loses its linear point of reference, personal limits can be transcended, the individual has an energy not bound by the usual rules’.
Perhaps the athlete willingly goes in search of a channel in which to discover their physical limit in order ‘to replace the moral limit that present-day society no longer provides’ (Le Breton, 2000: 1). For Midol and Broyer, the extreme sportsperson ‘flirt with death in their intense way of living for the moment’ (1995: 210).
1.7 Commitment to a lifestyle
In order to reach the level of expertise required to perform at these extreme levels, there requires a substantial commitment to the sport in time and effort. Like most sports, to reach an elite level one must be active in the sport regularly. This does not mean every so often, the odd weekend, or on holiday, but constant habitual training. This has lead to lifestyles that are atypical of the normal population. Chancey (1996: 4) described lifestyles as being ‘patterns of action that differentiate people’. Wheaton wrote ‘for the dedicated, often-obsessive participant, windsurfing participation is a whole way of life in which windsurfers seek hedonism, freedom, and self-expression’ (2000: 257). Perhaps they look to distance themselves from a ‘normal’ society. Humphrey’s proposes that in sports such as snowboarding, surfing and skateboarding, the sub culture members ‘seek to escape social constraints, rejecting mainstream values and lifestyles’ (Humphrey’s, 1997: 147). In this way, subcultures develop unique identities concomitant to their lifestyle enclave. The lifestyles they chose may be ‘dependant on cultural forms, each is a style, a manner, a way of using certain goods, places and times that is characteristic of a group…sets of practices and attitudes that make sense in particular contexts’ (Chancey, 1996: 5).
Chancey suggests that particular lifestyles are ‘intrinsically members’ categories’ (1996: 12). The surf lifestyle offers a perfect example. A surfer may live, sleep, breathe and eat at the beach. His/Her life is the beach. They become part of a sub-culture living the ‘beach lifestyle’. Their style may be symbolic of their group. Their daily interests and routines may revolve around the beach and ocean. One must follow and understand weather patterns, the ocean and its tidal movements. In relation to this aspect, it can be argued that the lifestyle is not the main attraction to the dedicated sportsperson, only an addition to their pursuit of a passion. Lyon & Lyon (1997: 26) followed the worlds leading ‘tow-in’ or ‘big wave surfers’. They wrote that ‘[In] order to be able to take advantage of the weather conditions at a moment’s notice, these men can’t have regular, 9 to 5 jobs’. To arrive at a high standard, their lives must revolve around the surf, and perhaps this will even become their livelihood.
Many alternative sportspersons are talented in two or more of the sports. Edelmann suggests that the crossover between sports such as snowboarding, skateboarding and skating ‘reinforces the connection’ between the similar sports (2000: 41). Humphrey’s spoke of an article in a 1975 edition of Newsweek that discussed surfers ‘who spend all summer searching for the perfect wave…[and] can now spend all winter searching for the perfect snowfall’ (op cit Humphrey’s, 1997: 149). Following seasonal sports is featured highly in many lifestyle sports. Winter sportspersons quite often ‘follow the snow’, uprooting at the end of one winter season and heading off to the other side of the world to find another. The social lifestyle around these sports is also a very amiable bonus. The highly visible aspects of the lifestyle associated with the sports have been adopted and marketed for mass consumption, skateboarding and surfing in particular, are currently very fashionable.
1.8 Media advertising’s influence on the ‘extreme lifestyle’ as a commodity
Increasingly within contemporary culture, ‘extreme’ sports are becoming synonymous with high-octane, alternative and fashionable lifestyles, as portrayed by marketers of this burgeoning business. The highly salient aspects such as clothing are accessible to all individuals regardless of their commitment to the sport. Consumer culture and marketing of such lifestyles through broadcast media are bringing the pretence of a lifestyle to the ‘high street’. Clarke believes that we ‘are able to buy an image of ourselves as well as a pair of running shoes’ (op cit Ingham & Loy, 1993: 253). Lifestyles are ‘usually assumed to be based upon the social organisation of consumption’, according to Chancey (1996: 16). In western society consumer culture is heavily dependant on the media. We are constantly subjected to broadcast medium and journals. Therefore, promoting the sub culture and lifestyle as fashion through mass media may encourage a larger target market.
Humphrey’s (1997: 147) suggested ‘the styles adopted by alternative youth make them powerful sites of cultural production that have been appropriated and legitimated by capitalism’. The market value of this lifestyle is high, but as noted by Berman (1998) ‘it is difficult to market this lifestyle with “tact and authenticity” when the very act of marketing is permanently changing the intrinsic culture of extreme sports’ (www.washingtonpost.com). It could be argued that, when the broadcast media transform a sub-culture or lifestyle into a mass commodity, the original sub-culture look for other ways to prove their individualism. In the long run, the lifestyle eventually becomes unfashionable to the mass population, and perhaps goes underground into its original form again. To be fashion conscious may not be highly regarded within such a sub-culture. Communities within sub-cultures have their own style and habits partly because of membership to a group identity and partly because of practicality. These sports cannot be pursued without some degree of ‘consumption of objects-specifically the equipment or kit’ (Wheaton, 2000: 261).
Wheaton (2000: 265) argued, ‘the uniqueness of the subculture identification of the committed windsurfer was not based on sub cultural style’. Following the belief that people who truly enjoy the sport and lifestyle for what it is, do not pay so much attention to the fashion aspect portrayed by the media. On discussing climbing, Donnelly and Young (1998: 230) mentioned, ‘While display is expected from novices, it may be ridiculed as the individual becomes more experienced’. This is not to say that style does not play a part in the true group members of a sub culture, but to say that it may not be as important to the sub cultural status. Wheaton describes windsurfers turning against their own previously adopted style, due to the mainstream commercialisation of the beachwear style. She aptly called this ‘Style denial’, which suggests ‘resistance to the incorporation of surf style into mainstream fashion and its subsequent commercialisation’ (Wheaton, 2000: 266).
1.9 Media Interest in extreme sports: past and present
In past years television paid little attention to these more alternative sports, therefore there was a tendency for them to be aired at hours when the majority of viewers were in all probability asleep or as ‘fillers’ (Travis, personal communication). However, in the last decade there has been an upsurge in the time donated to ‘extreme’ sport concomitant with the ever-increasing market. Consequently, there are more time slots allocated to these sports than ever before. It is a symbiotic relationship. Chancey’s (1996: 17) opinion is that ‘the idea of consumer culture is dependent upon the possibility of mass marketing with its concomitant mass advertising’. Wenner (1989: 22) stresses that within mediated sport ‘The content per se is not what is being sold; rather, it is the audience for that content that is being sold to advertisers’. Hence, once these sports become part of broadcast media, advertisers pay to market their products, which they carefully and professionally link to the different sports. The consumer and commercial sphere works in a mutually dependent fashion. Wenner (1989: 22) notes that the sports ‘…organisation indirectly markets this product to broadcast media organizations, who repackage and embellish the product as the lure for the audiences that advertisers seek to reach’.
In an article about skateboarding, Beale (1995: 256) writes that at ‘times of high popularity, various commercial interests have tried to capitalize on the activity by promoting it as part of the dominant sport culture, that is, as a legitimate sport, one which promotes competition, win at-all-costs attitude, and extrinsic rewards’. Rowe (1999: 30) describes the ‘core audience of sports fans’ as being a ‘reliable ‘commodity’, which can be profitably sold to advertisers…’ However, Beale quotes a dedicated skateboarders opinion that ‘[Skateboarding] is a symbol of freedom that can’t be cut up and sold, [one] can’t do that with freedom’ (op cit Beale, 1995: 266).
Chancey views ‘the moral critique of consumerism as introducing ‘inauthentic’ cravings or needs’ (1996: 20). Certainly this would be true in respect to certain terrain-specific designed clothing such as climbing boots, or baggy skate pants that in are worn in the high street by a non-sporting individual. Jhally voices the opinion that the very exposure will lead to what she calls ‘…“massification” of sports, as the search now is for new audiences for advertisers, rather than the appeal to the “cultivated” minority who really understand what sports are about’ (op cit Wenner, 1989: 81). However, there may also be a downfall in the future of the commercialisation process, although it is difficult to predict at this early stage. Arguably, it seems likely that there may be a certain ‘feeling’ lost as a result of the commercialisation process.
1.10 Costs and benefits of media marketing & sponsorship
This study aims to explore the notion that broadcast media are manipulating the ‘extreme’ sport genre, and indeed the term itself, for commercial benefit of the new target market. This may be both beneficial and detrimental to these sports as a whole. On the one hand, there is the increased sponsorship and funding for the athletes. More companies want to see their brand or product worn by the ‘extreme’ athlete on television; therefore they sponsor an athlete whom in return receives free equipment, clothing, etc. The company may even pay for the athlete’s travel and living expenses. One may hypothesise ‘the sponsor-professional relationship is ultimately an employer-employee relationship’ (Humphrey’s, 1997: 153). The relationship has mutual benefits. Sponsorship gives the athlete a chance to develop their abilities to enter competitions at a professional level, where the prize money might be quite substantial. At the same time, it frees the sportsperson ‘to make play of their work’ (Humphrey’s, 1997: 159). Simultaneously, the sponsor accumulates the rewards. It is Jhally’s opinion that ‘Corporations directly sponsor teams and events in the hope of attaching their names to the meaning of the particular activity’ (op cit Wenner, 1989: 79).
With the increased revenue from the media, the sports are made more readily available to the public, which in turn widens their appeal. As Humphrey’s suggests ‘Commercialism increased the popularity of the activity and generated profits’ (1997: 153). One may predict that, increased popularity and public spending on media coverage will enhance standards and availability of these sports. Safety measures may be introduced that were omitted previously and more money may be spent on improving equipment. The profile and recognition of these sports may also increase.
A pitfall of sponsorship and marketing is that qualitatively it changes the character of the sports. Subsequently, they become more competitive as there is a drive for entertainment e.g. races. Pearson suggests that competition may ‘detract from the freedom of expression that many board riders claim is the essence of their sport’ (1979: 124). The ‘fun’ aspect and true spirit and innocence may be lost. Skate magazine, Flakezine (1994), suggests that by giving into commercialisation, profit and mainstream demands ‘snowboarders, snowboarding companies and the snowboarding media will make a lot of money…but it will be in exchange for their souls, creativity, and individuality’ (op cit Humphrey’s 1997: 153). Within certain alternative sports’ circles competition for viewer pleasure, is not highly esteemed. Beale outlined the opinion of skateboarders ‘that an uncool skater was competitive and exclusive, while a cool skater was supportive and did not show off’ (Beale, 1995: 201).
Extreme sports, as yet, have not been in the media’s eye long enough to weigh up fully the costs against the benefits of marketing and sponsorship. However, increasingly with large cable networks such as ESPN, sponsorship and money is changing the originality and innocence of the sports. Arlo Eisenberg, pro in-line skater, believes that the exposure of ESPN is dangerous in that it may change the sport into something it is not. He voices the opinion that the sports ‘are mutating under ESPN’s auspices’ (op cit Rinehart, 1998: 401).
1.11 Feeling of difference in ‘extreme’ sports
A potential pitfall of this process of commercialisation is the loss of ‘extreme’ sports feeling of difference. Until relatively recently, ‘extreme’ sports were pursued by a minority of individuals on the basis of individual passions and less because of the influence of mass society, media and trends. Materialistic goals were not achievable, only personal achievement and enjoyment. Pearson (1979: 127) suggests ‘self-expression, spontaneity, a desire for excitement and stimulation generally, reflect a non instrumental involvement in the activity (activity for the sake of it or to express oneself)’.
Whilst these sports remain on the outer edges of mainstream, there is still a feeling of belonging to something different. The participants may ‘relish the distinction from larger society’ and their sub cultural status may make them feel ‘…unique, distinct, and/or outside the mainstream. They may even present themselves and form an identity around their uniqueness’ (Crosset and Beal, 1997: 80). Rinehart’s (1995: 403) view is that one of the main differences that separate ‘extreme’ sports (or alternative sports, as he also describes them) from mainstream sports is that ‘…by definition, alternative sports have not gained wide acceptance from mainstream audiences’.
I.12 Changes in the spirit of ‘extreme’ sport culture
Lyon and Lyon (1997: 5) draw attention to the spiritual self ‘because if you don’t have that, you’re not going to create the things that you want happening in your life. And that’s basic. It’s your Self, it’s your Spiritual Self and what you want to accomplish’. Traditionally, a key force in this genre of sport was it’s spiritual core. This may be likened to a secret tropical island that has only been discovered by a small group of individuals. It is pure, untouched, beautiful and with very few people; enough to remember first names, and share stories and passions. The island is something this small group shares like a family, each one who is dedicated and proud of it. They cherish something different to the rest of the world, not yet discovered by the masses. The feeling is intense and pure. However, once the word gets out about the island, throngs of people move on to it because their friends say it is ‘the place to be’, and the island becomes over populated, with people who don’t know each other, and don’t have any particular emotional connection with the island. The original community may move off to find somewhere else. This analogy could potentially be extended to the future of ‘extreme’ sport as a result of mass commercialisation, wherein participation has roots in mass trends, as much as genuine interest.
Snowboarding presents an example of the present media transformation. In it’s early days, it wasn’t seen as a favourable sport, and snowboarders were not made welcome in ski resorts. This didn’t prove good for the image, and the ease of entering the sport. However, being ‘an underground activity, snowboarding remained separate from the commercial sphere’ (Humphrey’s, 1997: 150). The fact that it remained underground made it appealing. However, now snowboarding is highly popular in youth culture. The media and marketers use it frequently to appeal to target groups. The inherent danger of being excessively in the medias eye is the potential to become ‘run of the mill’ or lose its ‘spirit’ and non-mainstream ambience. In many traditional sports, this has been the case. Altheide & Snow (1978) exemplify that ‘…because media revenues are so important to their functioning, professional sports have been transformed and changed, that something pure has been lost in their commercialisation’ (op cit Wenner, 1989).
1.13 Corporate recognition and image making
Large cable sports networks such as ESPN in the USA caught onto the trend and were the first of the entire major sports channels responsible for the metamorphosis of the ‘extreme’ sports phenomenon, into a nascent commodity. In 1993 ESPN decided to create ‘a new, made for television annual sports extravaganza’ for the youth markets that were searching for innovative and alternative sports (Rinehart, 1998: 400). The Extreme Games, which were first held in Rhode Island, June 1995 included ‘(a) skateboarding, (b) bungee jumping, (c) inline skating, (d) sky surfing, (e) street luge, (f) Eco challenge, (g) BMX dirt bike jumping, (h) barefoot jumping, (i) sport climbing, and (j) mountain biking’ (Rinehart, 1998: 400). The Extreme Games were later changed to the X-Games. As indicated by Amy Cacciola, the assistant director of marketing and communications at ESPN’s San Diego based X-Games, the name was changed because,
…the word ‘extreme’ is completely overused. There’s extreme skiing, and everything you see nowadays has the word ‘extreme’ on it…[We] felt that ‘X’ had a mystique to it (op cit Rinehart, 1998: 400).
Rinehart (1998: 398) speculates that the ‘X’ resembles that of generation X, the target audience of the extreme games. According to Humphrey’s (1997), Generation X was an image that suited ‘the medias perception of youth in the 1990s’ (155). However, Vice president of MTV, Sanjay Nazerali (1996) admitted ‘Gen-X was totally fabricated by marketers as a money spinner for the youth market’ (op cit Humphrey’s, 1997: 155).
The X-Games are not alone, but one of countless events held in both winter and summer, for the ‘extreme’ athlete today. A number of sports such as freeride, snowboarding, windsurfing, trail biking, kite surfing, ice climbing, skateboarding and inline skating have been grouped together under the rubric of ‘extreme’. The media, in a post-modern epoch, has the power of distorting the facts and reality on the screen for the public, and therefore there is ‘…a sense of individual powerlessness in the face of corporate/public perception and image-making’ (Rinehart, 1998: 399). ESPN vice president, Ron Semiao, is the man in charge of the decisions of which sports will be acknowledged in the X-Games. If he is impressed by a sport that someone suggests to him, and he thinks it will sell, then it will come under the extreme heading for television appearances. However, to some degree it has to be accepted by the alternative sportspersons and the consumer. In ‘Importing X Sports’ it is suggested that even after Semiao has added a sport, ‘…athletes can shoot it down…’ He said, ‘they tell us if something is cool or not’ (op cit Bakke, 1999: 24). Two factors are pertinent here; one that calling a sport ‘extreme’ doesn’t necessarily mean that it is extreme, but that persons in positions of power and authority within the media have chosen to call it that. The second factor is that the media define a sport as ‘extreme’ if it is ‘cool’.
1.14 Media equipment
Even in the last twenty years, camera and editing equipment have developed dramatically. The CBC technical producer at Whistler Mountain, Canada’s Downhill ski races during the seventies and eighties, claimed that ski racing in the past had been ‘probably…the most technically and physically demanding sports on television’ (op cit Wenner, 1989: 141). He outlined the problems with lenses being unable to capture anything but a ‘small grainy figure’; spectators would get in the way of microwave transmissions, distorting the image; power cable would heat up and disappear beneath the snow, etc. It was expensive and not the most visibly desirable sport to watch on television.
Indeed, more recent technological advances have made it possible for cameramen to follow and record the movements of skydivers during freefall. Similarly, small pen size cameras can be attached to the helmets of skiers. Special waterproof camera housing makes it possible to follow surfing from above and below the surface of the water.
1.15 Internet
The expansion of Internet capabilities allows footage to be shot, edited online, and made available online almost immediately. Whilst wider access to the Internet means that potentially vast audiences can view more alternative sports not shown on terrestrial TV, or on cable channels. It has opened up many new possibilities. Trevor Clawson proposes that the Internet marketers are now focusing on young peoples’ ‘…new awareness of extreme or lifestyle sports’ (Clawson, 2000: 91). Young people from affluent families, with greater computer literacy and internet access, he believes, represent future targets for marketers of extreme websites: ‘they are a dream come true, a niche market there for the taking’.
1.16 Aims and Hypotheses
(a) Aims
A general aim of the present study aims to explore the term ‘extreme’ in relation to the extreme sport genre. More specifically, it aims to examine the accuracy of media usage of the term, as judged by professionals actively involved in the relevant sports, either directly e.g. athlete or indirectly e.g. film production. A related aim is to identify key defining factors in the notion of extreme. The study specifically aims to explore and assess media manipulation of ‘extreme sports’ for commercial purposes.
(b) Hypotheses
· It is hypothesised that key defining factors in the notion of ‘extreme’ pertain to unique and specific environmental, physical and emotional variables.
· It is hypothesised the term ‘extreme’ is used in popular media culture in a generalised and non-specific way, to the point that professionals consider that the term has been substantially depreciated.
· It is hypothesized that the more elite ‘extreme’ level athletes largely no longer use the term ‘extreme’, as there are too many new, less ‘extreme’ sports grouped under the same heading.
· It is hypothesised that the media are using the term ‘extreme’ as a marketable tool for the consuming masses and this may have long-term effects upon how participants are relating to the identity of their sport.
2. Methodology
The current study adopted aspects of ethnographic observational techniques as described by Hammersley and Atkinson (1995). Some preliminary information was initially gathered from a pilot-study utilising questionnaires, and was used as a basis for formulation of interview schedules. The main strategy employed in the present study entailed the extraction of qualitative information from interviews conducted with professionals in the field.
2.1 Preliminary questionnaire pilot-study
The questionnaire comprised twenty questions regarding extreme sports consumption (see appendix I). Approximately 100 questionnaires were distributed to students within University of Surrey Roehampton (Whiteland’s campus) and were given a university post box number and address at which to return them. Of these, 73 were returned. Answers contained within the completed questionnaires were collated and key elements extracted for further development in the interview schedules. The results are not deemed of relevance to the exposition of the main findings and will not be discussed further therefore.
2.2 Interviews
(a) Sample
A total of 30 professionals were interviewed on an individual basis. The sample comprised professionals such as World Cup skiers, Olympic skiers (Freeride, moguls, aerials and downhill), pro snowboarders, pro windsurfers, pro skateboarders, current X-games participants, sports commentators, T.V. producers, directors and editors, sponsors, and retailers/buyers etc, all involved in ‘extreme’ sport. A variety of ‘key informants were selected who had access to distinctive insider knowledge…’ (Wheaton, 2000: 258). Participants from diverse professions within the same genus of sport were deliberately singled out in order to investigate the potential disparity in attitudes or beliefs of the consumer, participant and the marketer.
(b) Materials and procedure
The interviews were informal, being conducted both via e-mail, telephone, and face to face between interviewer and interviewee using a mini disc with microphone. The interview schedule was standardized (appendix II), although interesting opinions were explored as and when the opportunity arose. Covering letters were sent to interviewees (see appendix IV). The interviewees were encouraged to donate some of their individual thought and experience in order to potentially ‘produce new areas of enquiry’ (Wheaton, 2000: 257). The questions were designed so as not to influence the interviewee in any particular direction, or suggest the original hypothesis of the research. Contact was retained in order to be able to ‘continually refine and ask more pertinent questions’ (Beale, 1995: 255). The interviews were conducted over a period of five months. They were also situated within several different countries, that is, the United Kingdom, The United States of America, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, and Austria.
2.3 Ethnographic observations
Ethnographic techniques were also at the forefront of practices implemented to give support to the research. Having an already ‘established participant role within the group and familiarity with the context’ (op cit Wheaton, 1997), it was easy to observe those participants belonging, from within. Observation to see if there were any differences within newcomers to the scene in comparison with those who have been involved for an extensive period of time was a significant factor. One had to decipher interpretations of whether the media was having an influence, and whether there had been a dramatic difference in the popularity of ‘extreme’ sports recently. Ethnography played a vital part in separating those who had been influenced by the mass media, and those who had not.
2.4 Ethical considerations
All participants were made fully aware that their responses might be used for the purpose of this study and informed consent was obtained before interviewing commenced. Interviewees were given the chance to use a pseudonym name to replace their own and hence preserve their anonymity. Where there were observations made through ethnographic processes, identities were not revealed.
2.5 Limitations
Geographical differences limited the freedom to explore feelings and opinions of the subjects in other countries. Conducting interviews via e-mail proved a lengthy process in which some of the interviewees had to be constantly reminded that they had the interview lying in wait in their ‘folder’. The participant observation could only be conducted over short trips to ski resorts in France and surf spots in the U.K. More time in these locations would have been preferred.
3. Results & Analysis
Results comprise qualitative statements derived from interviews conducted with professionals within the relevant sports genre. Answers to the key questions of interest are summarized under each general concept below.
3.1 Definition of ‘extreme’
For a few of those interviewed, the term extreme held its value in some media representations of sport to a certain extent. J.B. Noon (Freeride skier) believes it ‘means something that is beyond normal everyday man in the street sports, that is X-fast moving, X-dangerous probably and gives a rush to the competitor’. He believes that many of the sports do hold aspects that are extreme, and that the media are seeking to convey the same message. However, overall it emerged that the majority of interviewed professionals agreed that the term extreme had been ‘tailored’ by mass media to suit their marketing needs. Sean Goff (Ex professional skateboarder) said:
‘Extreme’ is a marketing phrase made up about certain sports so they can market them and make money out of them. ‘Extreme’ it seems is about money.
It appeared that many of the professionals interviewed had a similar understanding of the contemporary sports genre, as being more an escalating group of ‘new’ sports, of a variety of levels, which hitherto have no fixed heading. Many regarded sports such as ‘base jumping’, ‘free climbing’, ‘and big wave surfing’ as being extreme in it’s true sense of the word, and perhaps skateboarding and Bmx as not extreme, yet they remain eminent in present day youth culture.
Tim Butt (T.V. producer/Cameraman) suggested that the term ‘extreme’ has been ‘now so greatly overused [it] has become a cliché’. He believed that ‘surfing down the face of 60ft waves of moving water at ridiculous speeds miles from shore in the Pacific Ocean is ‘extreme’. However, he mentioned that backpackers could go bungee jumping ‘nursing a hangover, without any prior training and with no danger of death’, yet mass media present this also as an ‘extreme’ sport. He was especially reluctant to use the term ‘extreme’ because of the extent to which the media use the term to group other sports that bare no comparison on the extremity of his first example.
Some of those interviewed said the extremity might all depend on the individual’s perception and ability. Jon Riley (T.V. Producer/Editor) suggested for some people it might not be ‘ the actual sport itself which defines whether it is extreme or not, but the level at which it is done’. James Curleigh (President & CEO: SALOMON) suggests ‘when you put skateboarding in the context of a 40 foot half-pipe and create a competition…you have taken skateboarding to the ‘extreme’.
In addition, Jon expressed the opinion that the term ‘‘extreme’ should only apply to sports which are occurring at the highest level, requiring the utmost commitment and skill from the participants, and are by the very nature dangerous and taking the sport to it’s limits’.
Peter Bauer (Pro Snowboarder/Event Organiser/T.V. Producer) believes that the title ‘extreme’ seems to be an invention from the part of society, which does not practice these things [sports]!’ Therefore perhaps the onlooker regards these sports as ‘extreme’ because the media representatives, whom may not even participate in these sports, have presented them to the general public as ‘extreme’, totally misrepresenting many of the sports involved. Jon expressed that he did not think the term ‘extreme’ was being used properly in sport, saying:
I mean, if the Hawaiian Ironman triathlon isn’t extreme, what is? It wouldn’t be described as an extreme sport, and there are many other examples. There is too much hype about the whole extreme thing at the moment. I think that the individual sports are more important than being grouped together as “Extreme” and should be taken on their own merits.
Christian Stevenson (Producer/ Director/ Cameraman/ Presenter- Team manager ‘Vans’ skate/snowboard/ Team manager Adidas Eyewear sports team) expressed:
The word ‘extreme’ is a term GQ uses. It has nothing to do with freesports and boardsports. Most media have no clue.
The impression given in his response is that ‘extreme’ is a term used in mass media, and mass publications such as his example, for the fashion consumer, and the representation by such corporations is not a true interpretation.
Duncan Freshwater (Alpine Ski Race Coach) speculates that the term is being used for so many different, perhaps not ‘extreme’ sports, because there are too many. He believes that ‘extreme is convenient scheduling for marketers and advertisers’. He expressed:
With the proliferation of so many sports, it would not be financially viable to market each one on its own. However when collectively grouped under the one heading ‘Extreme’, then the media and marketing forces have a very large audience.
Richard Cobbing (Ex Olympic Freestyle Ski Competitor/T.V. Producer & Narrator) suggests:
The media are always keen to pigeonhole things as it makes their job easier and helps the public to relate. Often the pigeonholing is too general and therefore inaccurate.
Several of the professionals interviewed suggested that the pertinent sports under study might come under a new heading to incorporate the diversity of sports incorporated. Richard, Peter, Jon, and Christian all suggested that the term ‘freesports’ might be more fitting to incorporate all of the presently popularly pursued sports. Each has it’s own degree of difficulty, some extreme, some not.
What became apparent through all of the interviews was that many of these sports pursued by the media are perhaps developing through youth culture, with music and fashion appearing at the forefront. The term ‘extreme’ adopted by the media more likely expresses ‘an exciting, highly specialised and visually dynamic activity’ (Fergus Heron: Ex Bmx Freestyler: U.K.), analogous with improving broadcast technology, televisions dynamic techniques created in post production, and the juxtaposition of fast tempo, up to date music. Richard suggests:
…the media make the mistake of labelling many sports as extreme because the lifestyle and ‘look’ of the participants is extreme rather than the action itself. In it’s basic form I don’t consider inline skating particularly extreme for example but because they have a lot of piercings, tattoos, wacky haircuts and very baggy clothes, certain areas of the media and marketing worlds would consider them so.
3.2 The adrenalin factor
The majority of those interviewed believed that the adrenalin factor was pertinent in ‘extreme’ sports. The quest for extremes of physical and mental emotional and physical experiences seemed far removed from those in every day life. Fergus Heron believes that the feeling is:
…instinctive, because it involves various amounts of risk, control, delight and terror. These extremes of sensation involved make the activities attractive to certain character types.
Richard Cobbing also perceives that ‘thrill-seekers are a personality type and if thrill is missing from their lives they will do something to get it’. Furthermore he suggested that life nowadays is easier and ‘sanitised’ in comparison to ‘times gone by [where] life held plenty of excitement provided by things like hunting for food through to warfare’.
Interestingly, many of the interviewees used instinct and pre-modern man as an example. William Hunt (Former FIS Ski racer: NZ National Team) suggested that the instinct:
…is an inbuilt, genetic thing. It is a way for pre-historic man to deal with dangerous situations that come up in the course of their lives. Part of our evolution.
Peter had a similar notion to that of William, but confessed to the ease of every day life as not holding enough, saying:
Mankind has always been confronted with danger; man hunting and fighting against bears… but we are pampered in safety and security. Our life is too safe. Everything is perfect; we have an air-conditioned office, car, heated home, with TV and warm water and microwave. The meat is in the supermarket next door, and if we want there is a plane leaving in 2 hours, to go where we want. And exactly this security leads mankind directly into ‘boringness’. This is why we look into adrenaline. Daily life doesn’t bring it to us. The streets in life must be rocky and bumpy, to make life interesting – ours are all fuckin’ asphalt highways!
When asked why the majority of people do not appear to search for, or need the ‘buzz’, William put forward that perhaps because they haven’t experienced it before, they do not know the extremes to which they can recreate these sensations that are congenital. Akin, Del Hawbaker (Vew-do Balance Boards: USA) suggested, ‘Until you actually do it, no-one can fully understand the feeling’. It appeared that once the individual had ‘had a taste’ of the ‘sensations’ derived from extreme experiences, there was a craving to re-create it. Sam Temple (World Cup Mogul skier) had described:
Before you try a new trick, there is always the fear factor. When you overcome your fear and do the trick you are hit by the adrenalin rush, this feels good! After a while you have mastered the trick and your fear diminishes, so you must find something else to fill the gap.
In the majority of the interviews, the need to re-create the sensation was likened to that of an addiction or drugs, ‘but it is good for you and its addictive!’ (Del). Claire Edward (Ex Salomon International freeride team: France) suggests:
If you’re involved in extreme sports, you’re an addict! You get a rush that lasts a little while, you get to that place where your heart is filled, then move on to another race or another sport to do something more radical to get the rush that didn’t last long, looking again for recognition (exposure, a medal, a title), acceptance (you’re cool and you’re ‘in’!), love (the media, the public love me). The problem is that the more you get that rush, the more you want it. But it’s kind of a fake feeling because it doesn’t satisfy your heart very long, so you keep trying. It gets harder to satisfy, so you have to push your limits a little more to get that rush.
Some of the relevant sports in this study appear to become extreme because of this quest for adrenalin. A sport such as skateboarding may become extreme when the athlete is pushing the tricks to such an extent that an error could lead to a detrimental accident. The enthusiastic mission to push ones own personal limits is a pertinent factor in these sports. Jon professed that ‘most of the athletes are in some way addicted to the adrenalin rush’ derived from these sports. Sean went as far as to say, ‘Ever nearly crashed your car? That’s the buzz we can get!’ This may appear to be a bit extreme, however for some involved this is the extent to which they will take their sport.
3.3 Lifestyles
Stuart (Semi-Pro windsurfer) said ‘the true addict will live the sport and move to where they can do it more often’, making it their lifestyle. Of those interviewed, the majority’s lives revolved around these sports; hence they became their lifestyle. Many had progressed in stages having 1) Travelled. 2) Learnt a new sport in a foreign destination. 3) Reached an above average level in the sport. 4) Competed. 5) Continued involvement as career/through related work. Many had been active in some sort of sporting activity(s), in childhood or young adulthood at an above average level. Two routes proved popular:
1) School/University Sports teams / Becomes lifestyle / Competition / Travel / Related career
2) Travel / New Sport / Becomes lifestyle / Compete / Related career
Claire had said that the people involved ‘push their limits’ to the point where this ‘becomes a lifestyle quest’. For Claire to be involved at a professional level, (that is to be at a level of competition, or to where a sponsor will sponsor her), her life needed to revolve around the sport. However, this is not to say that competition and sponsorship determine whether this becomes a lifestyle or not.
Commitment was a key defining factor. Jon believes that ‘if you are involved with sport at a reasonably committed level, it will become a lifestyle’. The elite athlete does not necessarily become involved because of the lifestyle but perhaps through genuine love of the sport, which in turn through prolonged training, participation and dedication it becomes their lifestyle. Tim suggests that the ‘big wave phenomenon is certainly a ‘lifestyle’ but that ‘lifestyle’ isn’t why people do it, but rather a result of the sport itself’. The lifestyle may be something that develops through intense involvement.
Jon mentioned that through his ‘observations, when people participate in a sport they like to associate with that sport and it can effect the way they see themselves, the way they act, dress and the music they listen to’. Certain individuals prefer the lifestyle associated with these sports. Adrian Frearson (Film maker/Snowboard team manager) suggests that people who participate in ‘freestyle sports i.e. surfing, bmx, skateboarding etc, share a common attitude…they lead similar lifestyles’. Richard’s opinion is that ‘People take part in sport to associate with like-minded people and be ‘part of a scene’, as much as to actually do the sport itself’. Peter’s perception is that these sports have a ‘culture complexity’, and that they are important in ‘our’ generation’s youth culture. He expressed that ‘freesports need to have music involved, fashion, and a lifestyle – which again influence the youth’s lifestyle’. This train of thought describes the form these sports are taking in popular culture in today’s generation.
3.4 Media influence on lifestyle as commodity
The media has a strong hold on the shaping of society. Everywhere one turns there is a television, a billboard, magazines etc. Presently the ideology of ‘extreme’ is presented as an attractive trend in youth culture, even within areas that have no access to the sports. The clothing and music related to this genre are currently ‘very fashionable and people who do not even participate like to dress like a surfer or skater, the whole image is seen as cool’ (Jon). Richard suggests:
Extreme sports appeal directly to 16 to 24 year old males who are traditionally the hardest target group for advertisers to reach and influence. The sports tend to be very underdeveloped from a financial and organisational perspective and as such are perfect for the sponsors: They are cheap to buy, they can be controlled and stage-managed, and they hit the hardest to reach target group.
Sean believes that unfortunately the mass media ‘have to dumb it down a bit’ for it to be accepted by ‘the average Jo’, in turn creating something that perhaps does not represent the intrinsic spirit, and reality of the sports involved. Certainly it does not give one the skills and fitness to pick up these sports at the moment they become fashionable. ‘Looking like a surfer doesn’t mean you can surf the Banzai Pipeline’ (Jon). Ben Benson (Ex Pro freestyle Skier/Salomon Representative) follows the same train of thought in saying ‘You can ride some of the Alaskan couloirs on a snowboard, or you could wear baggy pants, listen to hip hop, have the right image and only go away for one week a year and stay on piste’. Richard suggests:
Many people don’t have the balls and/or skill/determination to get to a high and thrilling level by simply doing the sport but would like to give the impression that they are of that ‘thrill seeking/exciting’ personality type, or be seen to belong to the scene. It’s an easy option to have all the cosmetic trappings but to avoid the risks involved.
However, he did not present this negatively as he believes that ‘it creates a large market and brings money into the sports’. Adrian shared this belief in saying ‘If it means that more kids are getting involved then it has to be a good thing’. One of the downfalls of this process of commercialisation is that people do ‘it because it is cool, and stop doing it as soon as it’s not cool anymore’ (Peter).
3.5 Sponsorship & Competition
A perhaps positive aspect to come out of the media’s interest in the pertinent sports genre is the interest of advertisers as sponsors. A ‘lot of the competitors are now well paid and can become full time professionals’ in an area they are dedicated to (Jon). Peter expresses that in the beginning of his career he ‘slowly was able to make a living with prize money, [and] sponsors fees…’ James suggests that there are two types of sponsorship:
1. Those companies who manufacture, brand, or contribute directly to the needs of the ‘athlete’ and are interested in creating awareness and inspiration through this ‘legitimate’ route. Athletes are also directly involved with product testing, design, marketing programmes, and promotion.
2. Companies who have identified the ‘audience’ of ‘extreme sports’ to their target market. This is usually the case with companies in drinks, snacks, media, video games, accessories….
In the first the company makes profit from the brand being ‘noticed’ and the athlete receives the equipment needed for their sport. Each wins. Furthermore, the equipment quality and ability is increased to a new level. For the second, James believes that perhaps the corporations involved are exploiting ‘extreme’ sports. However he has firm belief that for the sponsorship to exist, so too does the corporate recognition.
3.6 Interviewees’ relationship with the media
The majority of the interviewees described having progressed through true involvement in a ‘freesport’, into a career still connected with their passion, even though it meant perhaps less income than that of another area of work. Tim realises that he is capable of earning more by working in another area involving his qualifications, as ‘much of broadcast television work in this field suffers from fairly low funding.’ However he chooses to remain in this field in which he feels truly a part of and obtains great satisfaction. Adrian said ‘I have never gained a lot financially in the last 6/7 years, but I think it has made me very rich in life’. Several of the interviewees had moved into media involving these sports. I do not wish to confuse this cross section of professionals in the media with mass media. ‘The portrayal of these sports within their own media is totally different to their portrayal in mass society’ (Tim). These professionals faithfully represent, through the medium of television, the true essence of what the sports are really about. Richard believes ‘the sections of the media that fully understand these sports don’t tend to misrepresent them’. Most had become involved for intrinsic reasons, and wanted to preserve the originality and reality of the sports they present.
3.7 Suggestions for improvements & further research
It would have been desirable to conduct a statistical analysis of broadcast data. However the scheduling information provided by satellite television companies omitted key information concerning duration of broadcast of duration of ‘extreme’ sports. Therefore it was impossible to perform statistical analysis to determine whether increasing media profile is concomitant with longer airtime.
The adrenalin factor proved a vital factor in the participation of these sports. Richard Cobbing suggests that ‘thrill seeking personalities …tend to be hedonistic in nature’ not only in the sport but the way in which they live their lives. This very hedonism in relation to the choice of sport and lifestyle by the individual could be reviewed in a further study. A similar study of the lifestyles of persons before their involvement in these sports could be studied, and why they search for this sensation separate to the comfort and conformity of modern society. Alternatively, the travel aspect could be explored, and what it is that makes these individually search for these particular activities and lifestyles.
4. CONCLUSIONS
It was hypothesised that key defining factors in the notion of ‘extreme’ pertained to unique and specific environmental, physical and emotional variables. Results of the interview phase supported this hypothesis and suggested adrenalin factors, skills related to precision and environmental factors were viewed as key defining elements contributing to whether a sport can be accurately described as extreme or not. However, these factors play a role in many sports, which are not considered ‘extreme’. Interviewees suggested that it was the element of high risk of harm that was specific to ‘extreme’.
It was hypothesised the term ‘extreme’ is used in popular media culture in a generalised and non-specific way, to the point that professionals consider that the term has been substantially depreciated. Overwhelming support for this hypothesis was found in the responses of interviewees who considered that term had been devalued and should be replaced by terms including ‘freesports’ and ‘freestyle sports’.
It was hypothesised that the more elite ‘extreme’ level athletes largely no longer use the term ‘extreme’, as there are too many new, less ‘extreme’ sports grouped under the same heading. A substantial proportion of interviewees suggested that the media have used the term ‘extreme’ tactically as a blanket term to reach wider target market thus indicating a degree of support for this hypothesis.
It was hypothesised that, the media are using the term ‘extreme’ as a marketable tool for the consuming masses and this may have long-term effects upon how participants are relating to the identity of their sport. Interviews revealed that generally professionals in the field are highly reluctant to use the term ‘extreme’. When queried concerning their reasons, interviewees indicated the term covers too wide a range of skills and abilities. Several interviewees indicated dissatisfaction with being labeled under the rubric of ‘extreme’ on account of perceived negative connotations associated with the term e.g. ‘extreme’ has become a readily identifiable mainstream fashion statement.
In short, there seems to be a consensus of opinion that the term ‘extreme’ has been devalued by its representation in the mass media. When a sport receives extensive publicity and is represented by individuals with interests more aligned to fashion and advertising, the meaning of the term and general conception of the genre loses its clarity. In essence, this seems to have constituted devaluation.
5. References
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Borte, J. (2000), http://www.swell.com/sw/content/surfaz/foo_mark.jsp
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